Polygenetic Traits

What are Polygenetic Traits? 


Polygenic traits are traits that are controlled by more than one gene.  For example, height, weight, hair color, skin color (basically anything dealing with color). This allows for a wide range of physical traits. 


One good example of these traits is, if height was controlled by one gene A and if AA = 6' and Aa = 5'7" and as = 5', then people would either be 6', 5'7", or 5'. Since height is controlled by more than one gene, a wide range of heights is possible.


Polygenic traits usually produce a continuum of phenotypes.  Individual genes of a polygenic trait follow Mendel's laws, but together do not produce Mendelian ratios.  A bell shaped curve often describes the distribution of phenotypic classes of a polygenic trait.



They are recognized by their expressions that result from gradation of continuous variation.
Additive effects of two or more separate pair of genes control continuous variation.
The traits are quantified by measuring the variation, rather than counting.

They're different types of phenotypic expression which contributes to different pairs of genes.
These traits are also known as quantitative traits or multifactorial traits.  They are controlled by two or more genes at different loci on different chromosomes or it is the trait that is controlled by non-allelic genes. They are known as quantitative traits as their phenotypic expression is dependent on multiple alleles located on different chromosomes.

Phylogeny

Phylogeny is the history of the evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of descent and relationships among broad groups of organisms.
Phylogeny proposes that plants or animals of different species descended from common ancestors. The are a huge number of species that have ever lived are extinct, and relatively few of their remains have been preserved in the fossil record. Most phylogenies therefore are hypotheses and are based on indirect evidence. There is universal understanding that the tree of life is the result of organic descent from earlier ancestors and that true phylogenies are discoverable.

Evidence for specific phylogenies

Most of the data used in making phylogenetic judgments have come from comparative anatomy and from embryology, although these are rapidly being surpassed by systems constructed using molecular data. In comparing features common to different species, anatomists try to distinguish between homologies, or similarities inherited from a common ancestor, and analogies, or similarities that arise in response to similar habits and living conditions.


By counting differences in the sequence of units that make up protein and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules, researchers have devised a tool for measuring the degree to which different species have diverged since evolving from a common ancestor. Because mitochondrial DNA has very high mutation rates compared with nuclear DNA, it has been useful for establishing relationships among groups that have diverged recently. Essentially, the application of molecular genetics to systematics is similar to the use of radioisotopes in geologic dating: molecules change at different rates, with some, such as mitochondrial DNA, evolving rapidly and others, such as ribosomal RNA, evolving slowly. An important assumption then in using molecules for phylogeny reconstruction is to select the appropriate gene for the age of the taxon under study.

Sustainability

Sustainability is how biological systems endure and remain diverse and productive. Sustainability refers to the endurance of systems and processes. The organizing principle for sustainability, is sustainable development, which includes the four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics and culture. 


Sustainability science is the study of the concepts of sustainable development and environmental science.


Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans and other organisms. Ways of reducing human impact are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering, environmental resources management and environmental protection.


Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism. Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from re-organizing living conditions.


Despite the increased popularity of the use of the term "sustainability", the possibility that human societies will achieve environmental sustainability has been, and continues to be, questioned—in light of environmental degradation, climate change, overconsumption, and societies' pursuit of indefinite economic growth in a closed system.


Sustain can mean “maintain", "support", or "endure”.  Since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human sustainability on planet Earth and this has resulted in the most widely quoted definition of sustainability as a part of the concept sustainable development, that of the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March 20, 1987: “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Fossils

Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from hundreds or thousands years ago. Fossils are both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous rock formations and sedimentary layers or strata is known as the fossil record.


The study of fossils across geological time, how they were formed, and the evolutionary relationships between taxa phylogeny are some of the most important functions of the science of paleontology. A  preserved specimen is called a "fossil" if it is older than some minimum age, most often the arbitrary date of 10,000 years.   Fossils range in age from the youngest at the start of the Holocene Epoch to the oldest from the Archaean Eon, up to 3.48 billion years old.  The observation that certain fossils were associated with certain rock strata led early geologists to recognize a geological timescale in the 19th century. The development of radiometric dating techniques in the early 20th century allowed geologists to determine the numerical or "absolute" age of the various strata and thereby the included fossils.
Like extant organisms, fossils vary in size from microscopic, even single bacterial cells one micrometer in diameter, to gigantic, such as dinosaurs and trees many meters long and weighing many tons. A fossil normally preserves only a portion of the deceased organism, usually that portion that was partially mineralized during life, such as the bones and teeth of vertebrates, or the chitinous or calcareous exoskeletons of invertebrates. Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as animal tracks or feces otherwise known as coprolites. These types of fossil are called trace fossils or ichnofossils, as opposed to body fossils.


Finally, past life leaves some markers that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of biochemical signals; these are known as chemofossils or biomarkers.

Arboretum museum trip

The University Arboretum is the arboretum and botanic garden of the California State University, Sacramento at 6000 J Street, Sacramento, California, at J Street and Carlson Drive.


Founded in 1945 on what used to be a pear orchard and hop ranch the arboretum was originally named the Charles M. Goethe Arboretum in honor of Charles Goethe (1875–1966, pronounced "geh-teh"), a land developer, philanthropist, conservationist, eugenicist, and one of the university's founding fathers. "The name was changed without fanfare to University Arboretum in 2005" because of renewed attention to Goethe's virulently racist views, praise of Nazi Germany, and advocacy of eugenics.
 The arboretum is open daily from dawn to dusk and has some 1200 trees. Of particular interest is a wide-ranging conifer collection as well as several rare plants, including Taiwania and the "living fossil" Wollemia. The arboretum has a "Jurassic Park" section with flowering plants species dating back to the age of dinosaurs and another section for California native plants, with some 50 different species represented.
Mike Baad, a retired professor who volunteered at the arboretum since he joined the university in 1969, is the University Arboretum's longtime director

Competition

Competition is the relationship between members of the same or different species in which individuals are adversely affected by those having the same living requirements, such as food or space. Intraspecific competition.  Competition among members of the same species, is illustrated by some species of birds and mammals, the males of which set up territories from which all other males of the same species are excluded. In interspecific competition members of different species compete for the same ecologically limiting factors, such as a food source. Not all relationships among organisms are competitive; for example, the commensal relationship between members of different species is noncompetitive.

One example is two insects can survive on one rare flower. The two insects are going to fight for the rare flower to survive. Another example is how hyena often go to a lion's kill to get food while the lion pride is still there. The lions and hyenas might fight over the kill.

About Me

    My name is Robert Mena.  I was born in Pasadena, California and I am 14 years old.  I am currently in the 9th grade at Alhambra High School.  My interests for the past 9 years has been video games, however, I have found a new passion.  My new passion is running.  My family and I have done several short marathons and other outdoor activities in the last few years, and that is where I realized that I loved the sport.  That is why I have decided to join the schools Track and Cross Country Team.  I'm training hard to be a competitive runner and focusing on maintaining good grades.  Aside from video games and running, I enjoy spending time with my uncles.  They're both a positive influence and support me.  With my family's help I know I will succeed in Track and Cross Country.

Evolution of a Tadpole

In evolution each feature requires a very specific suite of genes in its production and operation.
An invertebrate, like a jellyfish, a clam, or a worm, does not have the genes necessary to construct a vertebrae, or all the other muscles, nerves, and organs needed by animals with a backbone, including fish.


A functioning fish does not possess the genes necessary to construct and utilize legs.  Tadpoles, which live in the water and have no legs, change into land-dwelling frogs with legs.


Tadpoles are not fish. They may look like a guppy, but they are the offspring of fully functioning frogs, complete with all the genes for legs and the structures needed to use them. The tadpole is not yet fully grown, and in the incomplete stage has not acquired all the features present in the adult, but it is a juvenile frog
.
However, it does have all the genes needed for life in the water, as well as those genes needed to grow legs at the right time, then live on land, and eventually produce tadpoles which themselves become frogs. No new genetic information must be acquired by mutation as required by evolution. They are already present.


This could be said about a human fetus in its early stages. At one point it has no arms or legs (or eyes or lungs etc.) but it acquires them through genetically controlled growth. No evolutionary process is needed to transform a fertilized human embryo into a baby and then into an adult. All the genes are present at the start.


Neither growth nor metamorphosis are evolution.

Evolution 101 Webquest

What are the mechanisms of evolution?


Descent and the genetic differences that are heritable and passed onto the next generation.  Mutation, migration (gene flow), genetic drift, and natural selection as mechanisms of change.  The importance of genetic variation.  The random nature of genetic drift and the effects of a reduction in genetic variation.  How variation differential reproduction and heredity result in evolution by natural selection.  How different species can effect each others evolution through co evolution.


What are 4 different types of species concepts?


organisms may appear to be alike and be different species.  Organisms may look different and yet be the same species.  Ring species have species with a geographic distribution that forms a ring and warps at the end.


What are four modes of speciation?  Describe and give an example.


The four modes of speciation are called Allopatric, Periatric, Parapatric, and Sympatric.  The allopatric speciation is that of Charles Darwin's Galapagos Finches.  The Periatric speciation is walking or traveling about .  The Sympatric speciation is when a new species arise.


What are some basic patterns in macro evolution?


Many lineages on the tree of life exhibit stasis, which just mean that they don't change much for a long time.  Lineages can change quickly or slowly.  Characters change can happen in a single direction, such as evolving additional segments, or it may nurse itself by gaining and losing segments.


What is homology?  An analogy?  Give examples.


A homology is the quality or condition of being homologous.  No, it is not an analogy.


What are the three evidences of how we know what happened when?


At the neck of evolution theory is the basic idea that life has existed for billions of years and has changed over time.  Overwhelming evidence supports this fact.  Scientist continue to argue about details of evolution, but he question of whether life has a long history or not has answered in the affirmative at least two centuries ago.


What is an evolutionary trend?


An evolutionary trend is a general direction of evolutionary change.


What are the big trends in evolution are entropy, entropy, energy intensiveness, evolutionary versatility, developmental depth, structural depth, adeptness, size and complexity.
What are the big trends in evolution?
The big trends in evolution are entropy, energy intensiveness; evolutionary versatility, developmental depth, structural depth, adoptedness, size and complexity.
Human Evolution
What are the four types of skulls?  What are at least 3 characteristics of each?
Mystery Skull-  From Europe where both Homo heidelbergensis and Homo heidelbergensis  have been found, their skulls have similar shapes, but each species have unique skull features.  To identify the mystery skull, compare it to the Homo heidebergenisis and Homo neanderthalass skulls.  Mystery Skull-  This mystery skull is from Koobi Fora, Kenya, where three early human species have been found around the same time Homohabilis, Homoerectus, and Paranthropus boisei.  To identify the skull, compare it to the skull from each of these three species.  Mystery Skull-  This Mystery Skull Homo Erectus skull is from Africa.  Some years ago, scientists proposed that fossils called Homo erectus from Africa and Asia were actually from two different species.  Mystery Skull-  This male mystery skull is nicknamed the Black Skull due to it's color.  It was originally assigned to the species Paronthropus boisei to similarities in the wire flaring cheekbones. 
What are the four main groups and what are their common characteristics?
The four main groups are the Homo, Paranthropus, Australopithecus and the Ardipithecus group.
What are the 7 characteristics of humans?
1)  Humans are created in the image and likeness of God.
2)  Humans are called to happiness and holiness.
3)  Humans are rational and free.
4)  Humans are moral beings.
5)  Humans have passions or feelings.
6)  Humans are blessed with a conscience.
7)  Humans are able to sin.

Diamante Poem

Dodo Bird

Silly Foolish

Singing Dancing Crying

The Velociraptor is one of the main predators for Dodo Birds.

Fearing, Dying, Killing

Screeching and Running

Velociraptor

Career Paleontologist

A master's degree is the primary educational requirement for most entry-level positions. A Ph.D. is necessary for most high-level research and college teaching positions, but a master's degree is preferred for most other geoscience jobs.  A bachelor's degree is adequate for a few entry-level positions, but most geoscientists need a master's degree in geology or earth science.   A master's degree is the preferred educational requirement for most entry-level research positions in private industry, Federal agencies, and State geological surveys. A number of States require geoscientists who offer their services directly to the public, particularly geologists, to obtain a license from a State licensing board. Licensing requirements vary but often include education, experience, and a passing score on an examination.  Computer skills are essential for prospective geoscientists; students who have experience with computer modeling, data analysis and integration, digital mapping, remote sensing, and Geographic Information Systems will be the most prepared entering the job market. Knowledge of the Global Positioning System, a locator system that uses satellites-has also become essential. Some employers seek applicants with field experience, so a summer internship is often helpful. Geoscientists must have good interpersonal skills because they usually work as part of a team with other geoscientists and with environmental scientists, engineers, and technicians. The average yearly salary for Paleontologist is $83,300. If you are just beginning to work as a Paleontologist, you could expect a starting pay of $68,600. As is true for most careers, you can expect your pay rate to increase the longer you are employed. You could make an income of around $98,000 after some time.


REFERENCES:


www.paleontologist.com

If extinction is a natural event should we try to save endangered species?

The reasons for saving endangered species might seem obvious to many people, but many question why we should save a species from dying out.  When we save a species, we do in fact do harm in some ways. For example, recently in California, the courts ordered the state to pump less water out of the Sacramento delta because of the endangered delta smelt. Less available water of course harms society in some ways. There is less water to make our lawns green, and less available water for private swimming pools. There may also be less water to keep the golf courses green. Less water available to farmers may also mean higher prices for produce and economic hardship for some individual farmers, who may even go into bankruptcy if the cutback is severe enough. Nevertheless, droughts, crop failures and bankruptcies are all part of life. We simply cannot completely eliminate them. Even if we pump the delta dry, we may not be able to solve these problems.

Extinction, is final. Once an organism becomes extinct, it is gone forever. It may hold some biological secret that may benefit humans but we may never find out if it is gone. Therefore, it would be prudent to cut back on our destruction of the environment and try to reduce our wasteful ways. After all, if we pump too much delta water, salt water will intrude, and in future years, the water will be saltier. Salt water also ruins precious farmland. Therefore, by saving the delta smelt, we may in fact save our future water supply and farms from salt water intrusion. So, why should we just destroy our own environment and in the process endangering not only wildlife, but our own economic future at the same time?

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Should Creationism be taught in schools?

There is no reason that Creationism should not discussed in the public schools because evolution is being taught and after 125 years, it remains a theory.   Additionally, evidence against the theory of evolution should be allowed to be discussed.  There should be freedom to speak about the lack of fossil evidence like all of the missing links that should show transitional fossils evolving from one species into another.  The only evidence that the theory of evolution has right now are sketches, drawings, and computer images that show purported transitions of one species evolving into another, different species.  The fossil evidence has never supported this theory and students have every right to know all of the facts.  Just as history, philosophy, and other disciplines are able to be critiqued, the theory of evolution should be allowed to be critiqued by presenting evidence contrary to it. One example is the Cambrian explosion, which is a fossil layer where almost every single plant, bacteria, flora, fauna, mammal, and animal fossil remains appear suddenly and without any apparent ancestral predecessors. It is called an “explosion” because of the fact that all life forms appear at one level with few fossils before and after it that show any type of transitional form.  This sudden burst of fossils explode onto the scene that gives the appearance of all life forms similar to the account of creation in Genesis. If you look at the life forms in the Cambrian layers, many of these life forms are still with us today and yet remain unchanged.

Bioengineering

Dear Science Daily,


     I have grappled with this question a lot as well. If we can create genetically modified rice that is much more nutritious, and ship it around the world for the same price as regular rice, why shouldn't we do that? As far as keeping species alive with bioengineering, well, that is really like playing 'God' and I'm sure tons of people would be upset over such a drastic action. There is little doubt in my mind that we will utilize these technologies in new and unusual ways, but where should we draw the line?

It can be used to produce bacteria that make insulin- for people with diabetes as insulin lowers blood sugar levels. Extracted from the pancreas of pigs and cattle.  Also it can be used to make plants and animals and even humans with certain characteristics.  Genes could also be manipulated in trees, for example, to absorb more CO2 and reduce the threat of global warming.  It can also increase the genetic diversity of species populations, especially those that are endangered.

Sincerely,

       Robert Mena

Gregor Mendel Letter

Dear Gregor Mendel,


     I understand that you have developed the theory of inheritance and heredity.  I've discovered that you have experimented with the garden pea plant. First I believe you pollinated short pea plants with tall pea plants.  To my understanding the next generation of pea plants resulting from the experiment were all tall pea plants. You bred two of the pea plants from the new generation and they ended up having 3 tall pea plants and 1 short pea plant.  I noticed that there seemed to be two different traits. One trait seemed to appear in every generation, which was called the dominant trait. One trait seemed to disappear; this was known as the recessive trait. You discovered discoveries sadly,  weren't discovered until 1900.





     Many people have helped pave the pathway of genetics. Charles Darwin discovered different characteristics of finches as he sail through the galapogas islands, Punnet created the punnet square(a chart used to predict traits among offspring) and Watson & Crick discovered the structure of DNA, the hereditary information found inside the nucleus. DNA is found inside your genes which, by the thousands are found on your 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Diabetes

Diabetes is a genetic disease that runs through my family.  It's a group of metabolic diseases in which the individual has high blood glucose (blood sugar), either because insulin production is inadequate, or because the body's cells do not respond properly to insulin, or both.  Patients with high blood sugar will typically experience polyuria (frequent urination), they will become increasingly thirsty(polydipsia) and hungry(polyphagia).




TREATMENT AND GENETICS:




Unlike some traits, diabetes does not seem to be inherited in a simple pattern. Yet clearly, some people are born more likely to develop diabetes than others.

Type 1 Diabetes

In most cases of type 1 diabetes, people need to inherit risk factors from both parents. Statistics show diabetes more common in whites because whites have the highest rate of type 1 diabetes.
Because most people who are at risk do not get diabetes, researchers want to find out what the environmental triggers are.
One trigger might be related to cold weather. Type 1 diabetes develops more often in winter than summer and is more common in places with cold climates.
Another trigger might be viruses. Perhaps a virus that has only mild effects on most people triggers type 1 diabetes in others.
Early diet may also play a role. Type 1 diabetes is less common in people who were breastfed and in those who first ate solid foods at later agesstands for advanced glycosylation (gly-KOH-sih-LAY-shun) end products. AGEs are produced in the body when glucose links with protein. They play a role in damaging blood vessels, which can lead to diabetes complications.X.
In many people, the development of type 1 diabetes seems to take many years. In experiments that followed relatives of people with type 1 diabetes, researchers found that most of those who later got diabetes had certain autoantibodies in their blood for years before.
(Antibodies are proteins that destroy bacteria or viruses. Autoantibodies are antibodiesproteins made by the body to protect itself from "foreign" substances such as bacteria or viruses. People get type 1 diabetes when their bodies make antibodies that destroy the body's own insulin-making beta cells.X 'gone bad,' which attack the body's own tissues.)

Type 2 Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes has a stronger link to family history and lineage than type 1, although it too depends on environmental factors.
Studies of twins have shown that genetics play a very strong role in the development of type 2 diabetes.
Lifestyle also influences the development of type 2 diabetes. Obesitya condition in which a greater than normal amount of fat is in the body; more severe than overweight; having a body mass index of 30 or more.X tends to run in families, and families tend to have similar eating and exercise habits.
If you have a family history of type 2 diabetes, it may be difficult to figure out whether your diabetes is due to lifestyle factors or genetic susceptibility. Most likely it is due to both. However, don’t lose heart. Studies show that it is possible to delay or prevent type 2 diabetes by exercising and losing weight.




REFERENCE:  AMERICAN DIABETES ASSOCIATION
                          www.diabetes.org

Gattaca. Good or Bad?

Good : Everyone was genetically superior to their elders. So they had good genes no addiction for alcoholism, drugs... so no one was a alcoholic or junkie among genetically engineered "valids". Higher IQ and other intelligence factors. Better health, longer life-span healthier and "better" bodies.  Individuals were a lot smarter also including invalids. The "society" had certain goals witch it tried to achieve. The government (prosuming there even was one) had a good grip of it's citizens. When a child was made and most probably genetically engineered. They usually "deleted" the bad factors. Like violent behavior any addictions and obesity (When people have too much over weight and when they get older the risk of getting your limb or other bones fractured is great. And they might have to retire EARLIER and the government usually pays the medical bill's and the retirement money so the government loses money. And the same thing with junkies alcoholics and others.) Longer life-span means that the citizen would live longer and be more effective longer so they would pay taxes for the most of their lives. And that is good for the government presuming it had taxing.






Bad : Discrimination of invalid's. Invalids were genetically weaker so they kind of slowed down the world to become a perfect genepool. Invalid's were a burton to the society. When an invalid couple would decide to have a child all invalid couples didn't have to money for genetic engineering. So the valid's are just getting better and better and because of discrimination of invalid's they have hard time to even get a proper job. So they just keep going lower and lower.

Should we be able to know our genomes?

Some genomic pioneers are sharing their entire sequences on the Internet.  Yet what our genomes reveal might return to haunt us later, and more to the point, our families.  Some of us won’t want everyone knowing our risk of cancer or Alzheimer’s disease, or worse, guessing our kids’ health risks.  Yet we’d like researchers to be able to study the data without harm coming to us.  And we need them to have access to the genomes of others.   We would like to be able to check our individual risk of cancer or Alzheimer’s disease when we choose, or trace our genetic lineages using genomic tools.  Unless many, many people share data revealing their risk of cancer or Alzheimer’s disease, and opt into ancestry databases, there will be no way to interpret ours.
For this system to work, we need to be in control of the information that results from having a personal genome sequenced. So this right should not go exclusively to the company that does the sequencing, or the website that identifies how one genome differs from another, or the academic researchers who do the research.  The company or university that does the sequencing provides a service, but it should not own or control the data about us. Genome sequencing can provide high-impact medical results, but most of the time, it will merely illuminate our genealogy and satisfy our curiosity, and give moderately interesting insights into disease risk. In the continuum of potential results, FDA has a clear role in the medical aspects, but at the other end of the continuum does not have any business blocking us from using a website to find folks we’re related to.  Teasing apart what needs to be regulated from what does not is a work in progress, and frankly, we’re optimistic it can happen.

Career Genetic Counselor

Genetic counselors are health specialists who’ve completed specialized training in medical genetics. As medical specialists, genetic counselors assist individuals who’ve been diagnosed with genetic disorders. Genetic counselors review charts detailing family history and teach patients and other medical specialists about genetic diseases. Since they possess specialized counseling skills, genetic counselors help patients and their loved ones understand potential genetic testing options and the consequences of such testing. Additionally, these specialists address ethical questions associated with genetic testing and treatment.

As members of medical teams, genetic counselors teach patients, doctors, and other medical specialists how to treat people with genetic disorders and participate in public awareness campaigns to educate the public about these disorders. Many American universities offer genetic counseling graduate programs. Students earning graduate degrees in this field are required to complete classes in medical ethics, counseling, molecular genetics, psychology, clinical genetics, and cytogenetics. Aspiring genetic counselors should enroll in an American Board of Genetic Counseling (ABGC) accredited graduate program. Before being certified, genetic counselors must pass the ABGC’s certification examination.Genetic counselors are frequently paid base salaries and periodic bonuses. Likewise, most genetic counselors receive healthcare benefits. Average annual salaries for these specialists range anywhere from $49,195 – 64,208 annually, and with bonuses, genetic counselors earn additional income ranging between $375 - 2,250 annually.






HealthCareerCenter.org